Errors in Measurement

From ChemPRIME

v • cp • e ChemPRIME   1. Introduction: The Ambit of Chemistry What Chemists Do Handling Large and Small Numbers The International System of Units (SI) SI Prefixes Measurements, Quantities, and Unity Factors Errors in Measurement Volume Density Conversion Factors and Functions   2. Atoms, Molecules, and Chemical Reactions Macroscopic Properties and Microscopic Models The Atomic Theory Macroscopic and Microscopic Views of a Chemical Reaction Testing the Atomic Theory Atomic Weights The Amount of Substance: Moles The Mole The Amount of Substance The Avogadro Constant The Molar Mass Formulas and Composition Balancing Chemical Equations   3. Using Chemical Equations in Calculations Equations and Mass Relationships The Limiting Reagent Percent Yield Analysis of Compounds Thermochemistry Energy Thermochemical Equations Hess' Law Standard Enthalpies of Formation Solution Concentrations Diluting and Mixing Solutions Titrations   4. The Structure of Atoms Groups of Related Elements The Periodic Table Valence Exceptions to the Periodic Law Implications of Periodicity for Atomic Theory The Nuclear Atom Radiation The Electron The Nucleus Atomic Structure and Isotopes Isotopes Transmutation and Radioactivity Average Atomic Weights Measurement of Atomic Weights   5. The Electronic Structure of Atoms Electrons and Valence Lewis Diagrams The Wave Nature of the Electron Wave Mechanics The Uncertainty Principle Electron Waves in the Hydrogen Atom Orbitals Quantum Numbers Coulomb’s Law Potential Energy Electron Density and Potential Energy Atoms Having More Than One Electron Hydrogen, Helium, Lithium Beryllium, Boron, Carbon Electron Configurations Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table   6. Chemical Bonding - Electron Pairs and Octets Ionic Bonding Energy and the Formation of Ions The Ionic Crystal Lattice Ions and Noble-Gas Electron Configurations Periodic Variation of IE and EA Ionization Energies Ionization of Transition and Inner Transition Elements Electron Affinities Binary Ionic Compounds and Their Properties The Octet Rule Physical Properties Chemical Properties The Covalent Bond Covalent Molecules and the Octet Rule Writing Lewis Structures for Molecules Examples of Lewis Structures Polyatomic Ions Ionic Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions Atomic Sizes Ionic Sizes   7. Further Aspects of Covalent Bonding Exceptions to the Octet Rule The Shapes of Molecules Molecules with Lone Pairs Multiple Bonds and Molecular Shapes Hybrid Orbitals Orbital Descriptions of Multiple Bonds Sigma and Pi Bonds Polarizability Polar Covalent Bonds Electronegativity Polarity in Polyatomic Molecules Formal Charge and Oxidation Numbers Resonance   8. Properties of Organic Compounds ... Covalent Compounds and Intermolecular Forces Dipole Forces London Forces Organic Compounds: Hydrocarbons Alkanes Cycloalkanes Properties of Alkanes Aromatic Hydrocarbons Unsaturated Hydrocarbons Hydrogen Bonding: Water Ice and Water Organic Compounds-Some Additional Classes Alcohols Ethers Aldehydes and Ketones Carboxylic Acids Esters Organic Nitrogen Compounds Macromolecular Substances Diamond and Graphite Silicon Dioxide Synthetic Macromolecules: Some Applied Organic Chemistry Addition Polymers Condensation Polymers Cross-Linking   9. Gases Properties of Gases Pressure Measurement of Pressure Gas Laws Avogadro's Law Boyle's Law Charles's Law Gay-Lussac's Law The Ideal Gas Equation The Law of Combining Volumes Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures Kinetic Theory of Gases: Postulates of the Kinetic Theory Kinetic Theory of Gases: The Total Molecular Kinetic Energy Kinetic Theory of Gases: Molecular Speeds Kinetic Theory of Gases: Graham's Law of Diffusion Kinetic Theory of Gases: The Distribution of Molecular Speeds Deviations from the Ideal Gas Law   10. Solids, Liquids and Solutions Solids Lattices and Unit Cells Crystal Systems Closest-Packed Structures Liquids Viscosity Amorphous Materials: Glasses Phase Transitions Enthalpy of Fusion and Enthalpy of Vaporization Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium Boiling Point Critical Temperature and Pressure Phase Diagrams Solutions Saturated and Supersaturated Solutions Miscibility Measuring the Composition of a Solution Solubility and Molecular Structure Ideal Solutions: Raoult's Law The Separation of Mixtures Distillation Chromatography Colligative Properties of Solutions Boiling and Freezing Points Osmotic Pressure Colloids   11. Reactions in Aqueous Solutions Ions in Solution (Electrolytes) Precipitation Reactions Hydration of Ions Hydrogen and Hydroxide Ions Acid-Base Reactions Acids Bases Strong Acids and Bases Weak Acids Weak Bases Amphiprotic Species Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs Lewis Acids and Bases Redox Reactions Oxidation Numbers and Redox Reactions Balancing Redox Equations Common Oxidizing Agents Common Reducing Agents Substances Which Are Both Oxidizing and Reducing Agents Redox Couples   12. Chemistry of the Representative Elements Group IA: Alkali Metals Group IIA: Alkaline Earths Group IIIA Group IVA Group VA Group VIA: Chalcogens Group VIIA: Halogens Group VIIIA: Noble Gases   13. Chemical Equilibrium The Equilibrium State The Equilibrium Constant The Law of Chemical Equilibrium The Equilibrium Constant in Terms of Pressure Calculating the Extent of a Reaction Successive Approximation Predicting the Direction of a Reaction Le Chatelier’s Principle The Effect of a Change in Pressure The Effect of a Change in Temperature Effect of Adding a Reactant or Product The Molecular View of Equilibrium   14. Ionic Equilibria in Aqueous Solutions Ionization of Water pH and pOH The pH of Solutions of Weak Acids The pH of Solutions of Weak Bases Polyprotic Acids and Bases Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs and pH Buffer Solutions Indicators Titration Curves The Solubility Product The Common-Ion Effect The Solubilities of Salts of Weak Acids   15. Thermodynamics: Atoms, Molecules and Energy Heat Capacities Heat Capacity and Microscopic Changes Internal Energy Thermodynamic Terms and Conventions Enthalpy Measuring the Enthalpy Change State Functions Standard Pressure Bond Enthalpies Bond Enthalpies and Exothermic or Endothermic Reactions Fossil Fuels and the Energy Crisis Photosynthesis   16. Entropy and Spontaneous Reactions Spontaneous Processes and Molecular Probability Atoms, Molecules, and Probability Rates of Spontaneous Processes Thermodynamic Probability W and Entropy Getting Acquainted with Entropy Standard Molar Entropies Dependence of S on Molecular Structure Some Trends In Entropy Values Entropy Changes in Gaseous Reactions Entropy, Randomness, and Disorder Measuring the Entropy Including the Surroundings The Free Energy Maximum Useful Work Equilibrium Constants Revisited   17. Electrochemical Cells Electrolysis Electrolysis of Brine Aluminum Production Refining of Copper Electroplating Quantitative Aspects of Electrolysis Galvanic Cells Cell Notation and Conventions Electromotive Force of Galvanic Cells Storage Batteries Fuel Cells Galvanic Cells and Free Energy Cells at Non-Standard Conditions   18. Chemical Kinetics The Rate of Reaction The Rate Equation Microscopic View of Chemical Reactions Unimolecular Processes Bimolecular Processes Termolecular Processes Reaction Mechanisms Increasing the Rate of a Reaction The Effect of Temperature Catalysis Heterogeneous Catalysis   19. Nuclear Chemistry Naturally Occurring Radioactivity Radioactive Series Artificially Induced Nuclear Reactions Bombardment with Positive Ions Neutron Bombardment Further Modes of Decay Nuclear Stability The Rate of Radioactive Decay Instruments for Radiation Detection Units of Radiation Dose Uses of Artificial Isotopes Mass-Energy Relationships Nuclear Fission Nuclear Power Plants Breeder Reactors Nuclear Fusion   20. Molecules in Living Systems The Elements of Life The Building Blocks of Biochemistry Fats and Lipids Nonpolar Lipids Polar Lipids Carbohydrates Simple Sugars Disaccharides Polysaccharides Proteins Polypeptide Chains The Amino Acids Primary Protein Structure Secondary Protein Structure Higher-Order Structure Nucleic Acids Nucleic Acid Structure Information Storage The Double Helix DNA Replication Transcription and Translation   21. Spectra and Structure of Atoms and Molecules The Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation Atomic Spectra and the Bohr Theory Bohr Theory of the Atom The Spectra of Molecules: Infrared The Visible and Ultraviolet Spectra of Molecules: Molecular Orbitals Molecular Orbitals Delocalized Electrons Conjugated Systems   22. Metals Metallic Bonding Metallurgy Beneficiation Reduction of Metals Refining of Metals Corrosion Coordination Compounds Geometry of Complexes Chelating Agents Transitional Metal Ions in Aqueous Solutions

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NIST Technical Note 1297

Bertrand's Propagation of Uncertainty Calculator